Open access peer-reviewed chapter - ONLINE FIRST
Abstract
This chapter explores the extraordinary potential of graphene, a novel two-dimensional nanomaterial known for its exceptionally high electrical and thermal conductivity, remarkable mechanical strength, and ultra-lightweight nature. It outlines recent progress in enhancing graphene’s performance through methods such as chemical doping, surface functionalization, and hybridization with metals, oxides, and polymers. Emphasis is placed on scalable and cost-effective synthesis techniques that can meet industrial demands without compromising quality. The chapter also explores cutting-edge applications, including graphene-based biosensors for real-time medical diagnostics, complicated energy storage technologies such as lithium-ion batteries and supercapacitors, as well as reliable just small composites for the automotive and aerospace industries. Despite its promise, several challenges remain—such as achieving uniform dispersion, maintaining long-term environmental stability, and controlling its intrinsic properties at scale. These limitations are critically analyzed, with proposed strategies to address them, including surface engineering, green synthesis approaches, and integration with biodegradable matrices. Overall, the chapter presents a comprehensive overview of graphene’s evolving landscape, emphasizing its transformative role in next-generation technologies and the importance of sustainable development to ensure its successful implementation across multiple high-impact industries.
Keywords
- graphene
- functionalization
- nanocomposites
- energy storage
- biosensors
1. Introduction
The discovery of graphene has revolutionized the field of nanomaterials, unlocking unprecedented possibilities across physics, chemistry, materials science, and engineering [1]. Structurally, graphene is composed of a single layer of sp2-hybridized carbon atoms arranged in a two-dimensional honeycomb lattice [2]. This seemingly simple architecture grants graphene a remarkable set of properties, including exceptional mechanical strength (Young’s modulus ~1 TPa) [3], outstanding electrical conductivity (~106 S/m) [4], superior thermal conductivity (>3000 W/m K) [5], and excellent optical transparency [6]. Additionally, its atomic thinness and high surface area make it highly amenable to functionalization and integration into various systems, thereby broadening its applicability in domains such as energy, electronics, biomedicine, and structural materials [7].
However, despite its vast potential, the real-world application of graphene is impeded by several practical and technical limitations. Issues such as agglomeration, uneven dispersion in host matrices, environmental instability, and the degradation of intrinsic properties during processing continue to challenge its commercialization [8]. Moreover, while traditional fabrication methods such as mechanical exfoliation and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) yield high-quality graphene, they often fall short in terms of scalability and economic feasibility for mass production [9, 10]. In response, researchers have increasingly employed chemical doping, surface functionalization, and the development of graphene-based hybrids with polymers, metal oxides, and nanoparticles to tailor its properties for specific uses [11, 12].
Simultaneously, the push for sustainable and scalable fabrication has led to growing interest in greener, more cost-effective synthesis methods. These include solution-based exfoliation, the environmentally benign reduction of graphene oxide, and bottom-up synthesis using biomass-derived carbon sources [13, 14, 15]. Such approaches aim to optimize the balance between performance, economic viability, and ecological responsibility in line with global sustainability goals.
This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the latest advances in improving graphene’s functionality and processability. Special attention is given to its integration in high-performance applications, including biosensors for real-time diagnostics [16], energy storage devices such as supercapacitors and lithium-ion batteries [17], and reinforced nanocomposites for automotive and aerospace sectors [18]. Additionally, it critically evaluates current barriers to adoption and explores innovative strategies—such as novel surface modification techniques, eco-friendly processing methods, and the incorporation of recyclable or biodegradable supports—to overcome these challenges [19, 20].
By synthesizing recent progress with current challenges, this chapter seeks to offer a holistic view of graphene’s evolving role in advanced material science. It emphasizes the necessity of interdisciplinary collaboration and sustainable practices in unlocking the full technological potential of this exceptional material.
2. Properties of graphene: Unlocking exceptional qualities
An individual layer of carbon atoms is arranged in a hexagonal. The honeycomb structure lattice makes up graphene, a two-dimensional (2D) material, which exhibits a unique combination of extraordinary properties that places it at the center of the field of study in advanced science of materials [1, 21]. Single-layer graphene is characterized by semimetallic behavior with a linear energy-momentum relationship near the Dirac points and a lack of an intrinsic bandgap, which presents both opportunities and challenges for nanoelectronic applications [22, 23]. In few-layer graphene and graphite, the most popular stacking configuration is n is Bernal (ABA) stacking, in which carbon atoms from alternating layers align so that “A” atoms in one layer sit directly above “B” atoms in the adjacent layer. This stacking arrangement has a direct impact on the material’s electronic structure. For example, Bernal-stacked bilayer graphene illustrated in Figure 1 band trilayer graphene (Figure 1(c)) preserves semimetallic behavior but exhibits a tunable band overlap due to increased interlayer coupling [24, 25]. Conversely, rhombohedral (ABC) stacked trilayer graphene (Figure 1(d)) introduces an interlayer asymmetry, resulting in semiconducting characteristics and a tunable bandgap, similar to the bandgap observed in AB-stacked bilayer graphene under an applied electric field [26, 27, 28, 29]. These stacking-dependent variations in band structure offer promising routes for bandgap engineering, advancing the design of next-generation optoelectronic devices.
Figure 1.
(a) Diagram of the single-layer graphene’s hexagonal honeycomb lattice made up of two carbon sublattices. The color of the carbon atoms in the sublattices A and B is blue and yellow, respectively. (b) The Bernal or AB-stacked bilayer graphene schematic. (c) ABA (Bernal) stacked trilayer graphene schematic. (d) ABC (rhombohedral) stacked trilayer graphene schematic [21].
Because of its exceptional electrical, mechanical, thermal, and optical properties, graphene has emerged as a prime candidate for wide-spectrum applications of technological utilizations, including nanoelectronics, power storage, optoelectronics, and biomedical engineering [1]. To unlock its full potential in these domains, a deep understanding of its electronic structure and interaction mechanisms is essential. Graphene is a semi-metal in which the upper valence and lower conduction energy levels meet precisely at discrete K points within the Brillouin zone [2, 30]. This intersection forms a conical structure—commonly referred to as the Dirac cone—leading to a linear density of states near the Dirac point, which becomes zero at q = Kq = Kq = K (i.e., k = 0 k = 0 k = 0), a behavior characteristic of π-conjugated systems such as aromatic compounds (Figure 2). The Fermi energy level of graphene can be tuned relative to the Dirac point by applying an external electric field. For example, when graphene is deposited on a semiconductor like silicon, an applied back-gate voltage through the underlying substrate enables modulation of the Fermi level [32, 33]. Graphene also exhibits distinct doping behavior depending on the type of chemical species it interacts with. Contact with electron-donating species results in n-type conductivity, shifting the Fermi level at energies greater than the Dirac point, while electron-withdrawing species result in p-type doping, lowering the Fermi level below the Dirac point. The behavior of charge carriers in graphene is governed not by the traditional Schrödinger equation but by the Dirac equation relativistic quantum mechanical model—which accurately describes the dynamics of these massless Dirac fermions within the periodic honeycomb lattice potential generated by the carbon atoms [34]. These quasiparticles exhibit unique transport phenomena and can be viewed as massless electrons or charged neutrino analogues, as illustrated in Figure 3.
Figure 2.
Important methods for producing high-quality, large-area graphene using chemical vapor deposition (CVD) [31].
Figure 3.
Shows a blow-up of the energy dispersion relation for graphene in the Brillouin zone around the Dirac point (K) [34].
As shown in Figure 3 Red denotes empty levels (holes), while blue denotes levels that are full of electrons. Neutral graphene is represented by 3a, in which the conduction band (π* anti-bonding states) is entirely empty and the valence band (π bonding states) is fully packed with electrons. In this instance, the Dirac point and the Fermi level coincide. When electrons are partially drained from the valence band (hole-doped graphene with the Fermi level shifted to a location below the Dirac point), this is depicted in 3b. When additional electrons are pushed into the conduction band (negatively doped graphene), as shown in 3c, the Fermi level is subsequently higher than the Dirac point.
Furthermore, graphene demonstrates the quantum Hall effect even at room temperature, reflecting its potential for high-performance electronic devices and quantum applications [35]. Due to the absence of significant lattice defects in pristine samples, graphene possesses remarkably high electrical conductivity [36]. In addition to its superior electrical characteristics, graphene is also known for its exceptional mechanical strength and flexibility. It is one of the strongest materials ever measured, with an intrinsic tensile strength of approximately 130 GPa and Young’s modulus near 1 TPa [3]. These remarkable properties originate from its robust sp2-hybridized carbon-carbon bonds in the two-dimensional lattice. Despite its extreme strength, graphene maintains high flexibility and can endure considerable strain without structural failure, making it ideal for use in flexible, wearable electronics and reinforcing agents in composite materials [37]. Graphene also boasts outstanding thermal conductivity, reported to exceed 5000 W/m·K, attributed to highly efficient phonon transport across its lattice [5]. This positions graphene as a promising material for thermal management systems, such as thermal interface materials, heat sinks, and advanced cooling technologies in next-generation electronic devices [38]. Additionally, graphene exhibits impressive optical properties. Each monolayer absorbs around 2.3% of incident light across the visible spectrum, enabling its use in optoelectronic devices including solar cells, photodetectors, and transparent conductive electrodes [6]. Its high carrier mobility and nonlinear optical response also support ultrafast optical switching and modulation, which is essential for laser systems and optical communications [39]. Functionalization and hybridization with other materials allow graphene’s properties to be tailored for niche applications. In biosensing, functionalized graphene improves sensitivity and specificity for detecting biomolecules and environmental analytes [40]. However, despite its exceptional capabilities, challenges remain regarding its scalable synthesis and seamless integration into commercial platforms. Critical issues such as defect control, substrate interactions, and uniformity in large-area production must be addressed. Progress in synthesis technologies, defect engineering, and heterostructure design is essential to unlock graphene’s full potential [9].
In conclusion, graphene represents a revolutionary material with transformative implications across diverse scientific and industrial sectors. Its unmatched combination of electrical, mechanical, thermal, and optical properties is poised to drive innovation in energy, electronics, photonics, and healthcare. Continued research and technological advancements will be pivotal in realizing the vision of graphene-enabled technologies shaping the future of materials science [41].
3. Advanced synthesis techniques: Pushing the boundaries
Because of its exceptional mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties, graphene—a remarkable two-dimensional allotrope of carbon has completely changed the field of materials science. However, the development of novel synthesis methods that go beyond accepted limits is necessary to realize its full potential. Researchers have investigated and improved a number of techniques over time to enhance the functionality, scalability, and quality of graphene, which has resulted in innovative synthesis techniques. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), one of the most widely used methods for graphene synthesis, makes it possible to produce large-area, high-quality graphene films on metal substrates as shown in Figure 2. Nucleation density, epitaxial growth, recrystallization, and heating mode are the main elements that go into creating high-quality graphene, as shown in Figure 4. According to the schematic, regulating nucleation density makes it easier to create larger and more homogeneous graphene domains by encouraging the formation of a single nucleus on polycrystalline substrates. Aligned nuclei resulting from epitaxial growth, especially on single-crystal substrates, guarantee uniform graphene orientation. Additionally, through processes like grain rotation, desorption, and adsorption, the heating mode—which includes methods like hot-wire and scanning—promotes recrystallization, which improves grain alignment. When combined, these regulated growth parameters yield superior graphene with enhanced structural and electrical characteristics.
Figure 4.
Schematic representation of the main approaches for graphene fabrication. The methods are broadly classified into top-down approaches—such as micromechanical exfoliation, electrochemical exfoliation, thermal exfoliation, reduction of graphene oxide, arc discharge, unzipping carbon nanotubes, and sonication—and bottom-up approaches, including pyrolysis, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and epitaxial growth on silicon carbide [7].
4. Graphene in electronics: Nanotechnology’s future
Graphene’s exceptional electronic properties, including high carrier mobility, quantum confinement effects, and flexibility, have positioned it as a game-changer in nanoelectronics. As researchers continue to explore its potential, graphene-based devices are expected to revolutionize various technological fields, from high-speed transistors to flexible and transparent electronics.
Field-effect transistors (FETs) are among the most promising applications of graphene in electronics. Due to their ultra-high electron mobility, graphene FETs (GFETs) can process signals faster and with lower power consumption compared to traditional silicon-based transistors. To render graphene suitable for digital logic applications, efforts have been made to introduce a bandgap—either chemically or by forming heterostructures with materials such as hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) [31]. Another emerging field of graphene application is in next-generation wearable and flexible electronics. Owing to its high electrical conductivity and mechanical robustness, graphene serves as an excellent material for transparent conductive films in touchscreens, flexible displays, and electronic skin. Unlike conventional indium tin oxide (ITO) electrodes, graphene electrodes offer superior optical transparency, mechanical flexibility, and durability [42]. Furthermore, the integration of graphene into spintronic devices, which utilize electron spin to process and store information, opens new avenues for quantum computing and high-performance memory technologies. The unique spin transport behavior of graphene is being harnessed to develop ultrafast and energy-efficient computing architectures that transcend the limitations of conventional semiconductor systems [43]. In high-frequency electronics, graphene’s intrinsic high carrier mobility and ballistic transport properties make it a prime candidate for the development of ultrafast terahertz (THz) devices and next-generation communication systems. Graphene-based photodetectors and modulators are already being explored for advanced optical communication and imaging technologies [42]. With ongoing advancements in materials engineering and device integration, graphene’s role in nanoelectronics continues to expand. However, realizing its full commercial potential will require overcoming key challenges such as scalable manufacturing, controlled bandgap tuning, and seamless integration with existing semiconductor technologies.
As shown in Figure 4 [7], the main strategies for the fabrication of graphene are categorized into two broad approaches: top-down and bottom-up. The top-down approach involves breaking down bulk graphite materials into graphene sheets using methods such as micromechanical and electrochemical exfoliation, thermal exfoliation of graphite intercalation compounds, and reduction of graphene oxide. Other techniques like arc discharge, unzipping carbon nanotubes, and sonication are also included in this category, each offering different advantages in terms of scalability and structural quality. In contrast, the bottom-up approach focuses on building graphene structures from atomic or molecular precursors. This includes methods like pyrolysis, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and epitaxial growth on silicon carbide substrates, which are particularly suitable for producing high-quality, large-area graphene films. Understanding these fabrication routes is essential for selecting the appropriate method based on the desired application and material requirements.
5. Optical and mechanical properties: Strength, flexibility, and transparency
Because of its distinct optical and mechanical characteristics, graphene stands out from other materials and is vital to a wide range of technological applications. Its exceptional strength, flexibility, and transparency have intensified interest in fields such as optoelectronics, wearable technologies, and structural materials. Graphene possesses an intrinsic tensile strength of approximately 130 GPa, making it one of the strongest known materials—surpassing even steel [3]. Its combination of high strength and low weight enables the development of ultra-durable composite materials for industries like aerospace, automotive, and construction [18]. Furthermore, graphene’s excellent mechanical flexibility supports its integration into bendable and stretchable electronic components, facilitating innovations such as foldable smartphones, flexible displays, and electronic skins [44]. Alongside its mechanical properties, graphene also exhibits remarkable optical behavior. Despite being only one atom thick, it maintains high transparency while absorbing around 2.3% of incident light across a broad spectral range [6]. This feature makes it ideal for transparent conductive films used in photodetectors, solar cells, and touchscreens. Unlike conventional materials such as indium tin oxide (ITO), graphene offers superior flexibility and chemical stability, enhancing the longevity and performance of optoelectronic devices [45]. The synergy of graphene’s optical and mechanical properties opens new avenues for developing ultralight structural reinforcements, flexible energy systems, and next-generation wearable electronics. As research continues, successful integration into commercial applications will be key to fully realizing graphene’s transformative potential.
As shown in Figure 5 GQDs can be fabricated using both top-down and bottom-up approaches, including laser writing and chemical synthesis techniques. These nanoscale materials exhibit excellent properties that make them suitable for various energy-related applications, including supercapacitors, batteries, solar cells, and fuel cells, where they enhance charge storage [46].
Figure 5.
Schematic illustration of graphene quantum dots (GQDs) synthesis routes and their key applications [46].
6. Graphene for energy applications: Batteries, supercapacitors, and beyond
Because of its exceptional electrical conductivity, large surface area, and superior mechanical strength, graphene is a very promising material for energy storage and conversion applications. Graphene-based materials have been the subject of much research in the last 10 years in an effort to improve battery performance, boost supercapacitor efficiency, and aid in the creation of next-generation energy technologies.
6.1 Graphene in batteries
Graphene has become a ground-breaking substance for batteries of the future because of its remarkable electrical conductivity, large surface area, and superior mechanical strength [47]. Its incorporation into lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) significantly enhances ion transport kinetics, enabling faster charging rates and improved cycle stability. Graphene-based anodes especially in composite configurations with silicon, tin, and metal oxides—have demonstrated notable gains in energy density and capacity retention when compared to conventional graphite anodes [48]. Furthermore, graphene contributes meaningfully to the development of sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) and lithium-sulfur (Li-S), buffering volume expansion and improving electrochemical performance [49]. When integrated into cathodes and electrolytes, graphene facilitates electron mobility and strengthens electrode structures, boosting the overall efficiency of battery systems [50]. Its lightweight and flexible nature also supports the development of bendable and wearable energy storage devices, offering innovative solutions for portable electronics and smart textiles [51]. Despite these promising developments, challenges persist, especially in terms of large-scale manufacturing, economic feasibility, and long-term operational stability. Current research efforts are therefore focused on novel synthesis routes and the design of hybrid graphene-based materials to unlock the full commercial potential of graphene in energy storage technologies [52]. As shown in Figure 6, graphene plays a vital role in enhancing the performance of various types of rechargeable lithium batteries, including lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs), and lithium-oxygen batteries (LOBs). In LIBs, graphene’s high surface area, abundant structural defects, and nanopores provide numerous active sites for lithium-ion storage and enable rapid ion and electron transport, thereby improving battery efficiency and cycle life. For LSBs, graphene enhances the electronic conductivity of sulfur and effectively suppresses the shuttle effect of soluble polysulfides, which typically causes cathode degradation. This results in better capacity retention and stability. In the case of LOBs, free-standing graphene films serve as lightweight, high-energy-density cathodes with excellent electrolyte accessibility and structural layers that promote fast gas diffusion. Overall, graphene’s unique properties make it a promising material for advancing next-generation rechargeable lithium battery technologies.
Figure 6.
Representative graphene-based electrocatalysts are used for batteries [53].
7. Biomedical and sensor technologies: Graphene’s role in health and environment
Graphene’s extraordinary surface area, biocompatibility, and conductivity make it a highly attractive material for biomedical and environmental sensor technologies. In healthcare, graphene is being integrated into biosensors capable of detecting biomarkers, pathogens, or glucose levels with ultra-high sensitivity and rapid response times, enabling early disease diagnostics and continuous health monitoring. Its flexibility allows the development of wearable and implantable devices that conform to human tissue. In environmental monitoring, graphene-based sensors are used to detect toxic gases, heavy metals, and organic pollutants at extremely low concentrations, contributing to cleaner and safer ecosystems. Furthermore, functionalized graphene enhances selectivity and stability, making it ideal for real-time sensing in complex biological and environmental conditions.
7.1 Graphene in biomedical applications
Graphene and its derivatives, such as graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), have demonstrated immense potential in medical technologies. In drug delivery systems, graphene serves as an efficient carrier due to its high loading capacity, enabling targeted and controlled drug release. Figure 7 presents a comprehensive overview of the biomedical applications of graphene and its derivatives, with particular emphasis on their antibacterial and biocompatible properties. The illustration organizes functionalized graphene (GN) materials into key categories, including graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), and graphene modified with antimicrobial agents, metals, natural compounds, and polymers. Each type of modification enhances graphene’s suitability for specific biomedical functions. For instance, integrating antimicrobial peptides or silver nanoparticles significantly amplifies its antibacterial activity, while functionalization with natural compounds like usnic acid introduces environmentally friendly therapeutic options. Moreover, polymer-based graphene composites support targeted drug delivery and controlled interactions with biological systems. Unlike other figures in the document, Figure 7 focuses exclusively on healthcare applications, offering valuable insight into how structural modifications of graphene influence its biological interactions. This figure is essential for understanding the translational potential of graphene in medicine, as it highlights the diverse strategies used to adapt graphene materials for safe and effective clinical use. A closer examination may also reveal critical nuances in the functionalization methods, underscoring their importance in developing future biomedical technologies [54].
Figure 7.
Types of graphene (GN) modifications discussed in this review for potential use in the biomedical field [54].
7.2 Graphene in sensor technologies
Graphene-based sensors have set new benchmarks in sensitivity and selectivity across various fields, including biomedical diagnostics and environmental monitoring. In biosensors, graphene’s high surface area and exceptional electron mobility enable the rapid and accurate detection of biomolecules such as glucose, cholesterol, and various pathogens [55]. These attributes make graphene an excellent candidate for developing non-invasive health monitoring tools and point-of-care diagnostic systems. In the realm of environmental sensing, graphene-based gas sensors have demonstrated ultra-high sensitivity and rapid response times for detecting toxic gases such as ammonia, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide at trace concentrations [56, 57]. Furthermore, graphene exhibits strong binding affinity toward heavy metal ions, making it highly effective in water purification systems and contamination detection technologies [58]. These advancements position graphene as a key material for enhancing public health and environmental safety through the next generation of sensor platforms.
A schematic overview in Figure 8 of graphene oxide (GO), highlighting its hexagonal carbon lattice decorated with oxygen-containing groups like epoxy, hydroxyl, and carboxylic acids. These groups, randomly distributed on the sheet, are introduced during the oxidation of graphite—typically
Figure 8.
Source uses divides the graphene synthesis process into multiple categories. The expected size, crystallinity, and purity of the finished product form the basis for choosing a graphene fabrication process [59].
7.3 Future prospects
Despite its vast potential, challenges remain in scaling up graphene-based biomedical and sensor technologies for commercial applications. Critical problems like biocompatibility, long-term operational stability physiological and environmental conditions, and reproducibility of functionalization strategies need to be addressed. Moreover, achieving consistent large-scale production while preserving graphene’s intrinsic properties remains a key hurdle [60]. Nonetheless, the unique characteristics of graphene—high conductivity, mechanical flexibility, and functionalizability—continue to inspire research into next-generation healthcare and environmental monitoring systems. With advancements in nanomanufacturing, material integration, and regulatory standards, graphene-based technologies are poised to revolutionize biosensing, diagnostics, and environmental sustainability in the coming years [61].
8. Challenges and future perspectives: Toward scalable and sustainable graphene
Graphene’s exceptional electrical, thermal, mechanical, and optical properties have positioned it as a transformative material for a wide range of technological fields. However, translating laboratory achievements into real-world applications requires overcoming several scientific and engineering challenges [62]. The development of scalable, environmentally friendly, and cost-effective production methods remains a primary barrier to commercialization. Techniques such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD), liquid-phase exfoliation, and electrochemical synthesis are being optimized for higher throughput and quality control [7].
8.1 Future directions and emerging innovations
Looking ahead, several emerging innovations hold the potential to overcome current limitations and unlock new possibilities for graphene applications. One promising direction is defect engineering, where controlled modifications in graphene’s structure enhance its electronic, optical, and mechanical properties. By fine-tuning defect densities and functionalizing graphene, researchers can create tailored materials for specific applications, including flexible electronics, energy storage, and biomedical devices.
Hybrid materials combining graphene with other two-dimensional (2D) materials, like hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) and transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), are also gaining attention. These heterostructures enable novel functionalities that surpass the capabilities of individual materials. For instance, graphene-TMD composites exhibit enhanced charge transport properties, making them suitable for next-generation transistors and photonic devices. Furthermore, Machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI) are becoming more and more significant in graphene research. AI-driven material design and process optimization can accelerate the discovery of novel graphene derivatives and improve synthesis techniques. By leveraging big data and computational modeling, researchers can predict material behaviors and optimize fabrication parameters with unprecedented precision.
9. Conclusions
As graphene continues to evolve, overcoming production challenges and advancing sustainable manufacturing practices will be crucial in unlocking its full potential. As graphene continues to evolve, overcoming production challenges and advancing sustainable manufacturing practices will be crucial in unlocking its full potential. Despite the remarkable characteristics of graphene, including its remarkable mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and thermal stability, the path to widespread industrial adoption has been hindered by issues related to scalable, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly synthesis. Traditional production methods, such as mechanical exfoliation and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) [63, 64, 65, 66], can yield high-quality graphene; however, they are often expensive, energy-intensive, and limited in output, making them less viable for large-scale commercial use [66, 67, 68, 69]. Consequently, the development of alternative approaches like liquid-phase exfoliation, electrochemical exfoliation, and biomass-derived graphene has gained significant traction, offering pathways to reduce the ecological footprint of graphene manufacturing while increasing output. Moreover, integrating green chemistry principles such as using non-toxic solvents, reducing waste, and improving energy efficiency is vital to ensuring that graphene production aligns with global sustainability goals. At the same time, establishing international standards for graphene characterization and performance is essential for building trust among industries and consumers and for ensuring product consistency [69, 70, 71, 72]. The collaboration between academic researchers, industry leaders, and policymakers will play a central role in fostering innovation, attracting investment, and shaping regulations that support responsible graphene commercialization [73, 74, 75]. As these collaborative efforts bear fruit, graphene is poised to become a cornerstone material in future technologies—revolutionizing sectors ranging from flexible and wearable electronics, next-generation batteries, and supercapacitors, to lightweight composites, sensors, and biomedical devices. Its versatility and superior performance open up vast opportunities, and with a firm commitment to scalability and sustainability, graphene could not only transform advanced manufacturing but also contribute meaningfully to a cleaner, more efficient, and more technologically advanced world. With continued innovation and collaboration, graphene is poised to become a cornerstone material in future technologies, revolutionizing industries from electronics to energy and beyond.
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